Englis syntax

By Enni Akhmad, S.S., M.pd

Clause Level

·         Definition of Clause

1. According to Cook (1969:65), the clause level is that level that is below the sentence level and above the phrase level. The clause is composed of words and phrases and, in turn, fills slots at the sentence level

2. Elson & Pickett (1962:64) define the clause as a string of tagmemes that consists of or includes one and only one predicate, or predicate-like tagmemes, in  the string, and whose manifesting morpheme sequence typically fills slots at the sentence level.

Clause Types

There are two criteria that can be used to classify clauses: 

1. Their distribution in sentences and

2 .Their internal structure.

Based on their distribution in sentences, clauses can be classified into:

(a)    independent clauses

(b)   dependent clauses.

            An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone as a major sentence; and a dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand alone as a major sentence.

A dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand alone as a major sentence

Based on their internal structure, both independent and dependent clauses can be classified into:

•      (a) transitive clauses (tCl),

•      (b) intransitive clauses (iCl),

•      (c) equative clauses (eqCl).

Based on their function, dependent clauses can be classified into:

(a) nominal clauses, (b) adjectival clauses, and (c) adverbial clauses.

·         Transitive Clauses

•      Transitive clauses are clauses whose are filled by transitive verbs, namely, verbs that must take direct objects, like visit, write, read, play, speak, love, etc.

Examples:        John visited his uncle last week

                        Mary cooked rice in the kitchen

                        He speaks English very well

Intransitive Clauses

            Intransitive clauses are clauses whose predicates are filled by intransitive verbs, namely, verbs taking no direct objects, like work, go, sit, stand, rest, talk, laugh, come, look, etc.

Examples:        Mr. Wilson is working in his office

                        He is looking around the office right now

                        Miss Stewart is sitting at her desk

Equative  Clauses

            Equative clauses are clauses whose predicates are filled by equative verbs, like be, become, grow, seem, appear, look, remain, feel, smell, taste, sound, etc. These verbs are commonly followed by complement slots filled by nouns, noun phrases, adjectives, or adjective phrases.

Examples:        Jane is his sister

                        She is very beautiful

                        She became a nurse

Nominal Clauses  

Nominal clauses are dependent clauses that function or act like nouns. They can fill the subject, object, or complement slots at the clause level. At the sentence level, they can fill the margin slot. Nominal clauses can be transitive, intransitive, or equative clauses. 
Examples:       What you have said is not clear 

                         Whoever studies English must always practice it.

                          I don’t know where he lives

Nominal clauses are commonly introduced by relaters like what, where, who, why, that, etc.

Adjectival Clauses

            Adjectival clauses are dependent clauses that function like adjectives. They can fill the modifier slot at the phrase level. Like nominal clauses, adjectival clauses can be transitive, intransitive, or equative clauses.

Example:        The man, who came yesterday, is his uncle

                        The book, that you bought last week, is very interesting

                        The person, who lives next door, has gone to his son’s house

Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that function as adverbs. They fill slots as adverbs, namely, the slots of location, time or temporal, manner, reason, and purpose.

Based on the slots they occupy, adverbial clauses are of several types: (1) place or location clause, (2) time or temporal clause, (3) manner clause, (4) reason clause, (5) purpose clause, and (6) conditional clause.

Each of these adverbial clauses has its own relaters. The location clause is generally introduced by the relater where; the temporal clause is commonly introduced by the relater when, while, before, or after; the manner clause is generally introduced by the relater as, like, or as if; the reason clause is generally introduced by the relater because, since, or for; the purpose clause is commonly introduced by the relater so that, in order that, or in case; and the conditional clause is commonly introduced by the relater if or unless.

Examples:       

I left the book where I found it (locative clause)

He was watching a TV program when I came (temporal clause)

He behaves as if he were drunkard (manner clause)

He didn’t go to class yesterday because he was sick (reason clause)

He has tried to improve his English so that he can study at an American college (purpose clause)

John will drive to California if he has a car next summer (conditional clause)